Silviculture

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silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the development, care, establishment and Reproduction of stand of timber. Silviculture has specific roll with forest economics, forestry, forest protection, forest mensuration, forest utilisation, forest management.

Objectives of silviculture

1. Afforestation
2. Reforestation
3. Production of  higher volume call per unit area
4. Production of superior quality Timber
5. Production of economically valuable species
6. Reduction the rotation of species
7. Introduction of exotics

 Classification of  Plants

Plant is defined as a photosynthetic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms of the plant Kingdom characteristics having chloroplast and lacking the power of locomotion.
A complete plant has a root, stem, and leaves.

In the basic means plants are classified into different categories such as:-
A). Herb
B). Shrub
C). Tree

A). Herb is defined as the plant whose height is not more than one metre, stem is always green and tender.
B). Shrub is defined as a Woody plant different from a perennial herb in its Woody stem, and different from a tree in its love stature and it's habit of branching.
C). Tree is defined as a large would a perennial plant having a well-defined stamp and a definite crown. Some are called as climber which have special structures to climb on support.
Twiners grow spirally around the another plant support and do not possess shoot
or throns. E.g., Chonemorpha, clerodendron, echites.


‌Parts of the Tree and its Characteristics.
1)  Leaf
‌Leaf refers to the flattened, green, lateral structure attached to a secondary stem or branches and functioning as a principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration in plants. The leaf colour of the plant varies with species. Dark red colour observed in young leaves of mango and cassia fistula. Pinkish colour observed in young leaves of Qurcus incana, where as white is the mature leaves. Schleichera oleosa have bright red coloured leaves.

Autumn tint:- refers to the leaf colour change at the time of maturation due to various biological changes which alter the pigment composition.

On the basis of presence and absence of leaves, plants can be classified into two groups groups.
1. Evergreen species
2. Deciduous species
Deciduous species are the perennial plants which shut  their leaves and remain leafless for some part of the Year.
It includes Adina cardifolia, ailanthus exelsa, bombax ceiba, lannea and Melia azadirechta.
Evergreen species are the  perennial plants, in these species the old leave persist until the new leaves are appeared.
These never remain entirely without the green foliage.

2) stem
Stem is the principal axis of of plant from which new shoots and buds are developed. The stem diameter decreases from the base to upward which is technically called as taper. F l u t i n g refer the irregular swelling and involution on the the stem. This renders the utility of timber and reduces the value too. Bole refers to the lower part of  stem below the  main branches are given off.

3) Branch
branch refers to the shoot or secondary stem growing from the main stem of a tree or other plant the branching of tree differ with species. Bombax ceiba, pinus and pinus wallichiana produces whorl type branching. The horizontal type branching is observed in old deodar and duabanga sonneratioides. The anogeissus pendula and Terminalia myriocarba have download dropping branches.

‌4). Root
in plants root is the organ of  a plant body that typically lies below the surface of soil however root can also be a aerial ( growing about the ground) or areating ( growing up above the ground especially above water).
‌ adventitious roots arise from the stem, Woody trees, branches, leave.
‌E.g:- willow (salix).
‌ aerial roots are the roots found entirely above the ground. They function as prop roots or as the trunk. Eg :- Ficus glomerata, epiphytic orchids.
‌ pneumatophores are the roots arranged above the ground, specially above water. These roots facilitates gas exchange under anaerobic soil conditions.
‌ stilt roots are the  adventitious roots that grow  down from lateral branches. It is common among among mangrove species.

Introduction

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  The Agricultural science

Tahir malik(author)

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Classification of Agroforestry systems

Agroforestry systems are classified on the different categories. Different cretrias are used in the classification of agroforestry systems which are majorly accepted.
The most common includes the "Nair" Agroforestry system of classification. According to Nair:-(1987), Agroforestry system is classified according to the following sets of cretrias:-

1. Structure Basis:-

 On  the best bases of nature of components the Agroforestry is divided into four sections

• Agrisilvicultural system
• Agripastoral system
• Agrisilvipestoral system
• Others system

(A).  Agrisilvicultural  system 

 In this system the arable crops are grown suitably mixed with tree crops this means the agricultural crops are grown along with the perennial trees in the same field.The individual subclasses of the agree with agrisivilcultural system are described:-
(i) Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation:-  in this system the fallow land is used for the growing of perennial trees at the end of shifting cultivation.This practice degrees is soil erosion in the subsequent years and recovers depleted soil  and  nutrients.
(ii)
 Taungya system, In this  farmers/ local peoples are permitted to raise crops along with the tree species in same unit of land. The farmer is responsible for the  land preparation tree planting and growing  agricultural
 crops

(B) Silvipasture system 

in this system production of Woody plants are done in field trees and shrubs mainly provide fodder.

(i) Bank protein Bank in this system those plants which provide the protein rich food  are grown in the field and farm lands, so as to arguments the folder quality and quantity rangelands. some of the species of Acacia nilotica, albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, leucaena leucocephala, gliricidia sepium,

(ii) Live fence of  fodder trees and hedges:- In this system fodder trees and hedges are planted along the boundaries which serve as a live fence in addition to provide fodder. The suitable species for this purpose gliricidia sepium sesbania grandiflora and Acacia species.

(C) Agrisilvipastural system:- 

In the system the production of Wood perennials are grown with the agriculture crops and the trees are grown in the pasture field all three systems are interlinked with each other and provide  the good  income. parable crops are grown to provide food eatables, trees fodder to animals, field are also maintain in the same unit land that they are interlinked with each other and providing benefits to each other like the sheep's  browse the grass in the field in the meanwhile the trees produce fodder.


(i) Home Gardens:-
 Home garden is the suitable for high rainfall area in tropical conditions these are highly productive and suitable one.  food production is primary function of home garden.

(D) Others system 

(i) Apiculture with trees:-
In the system trees producing more flowers and honey are planted with the aim to augments apiculture.
(ii) Aquaforestry:-  In this system suitable trees are planted around the fish pounds. The Prime objective is to augment Apiculture by reducing evaporation and augmenting microclimate. Bamboos, eucalyptus, Mulberry, salix suitable for bank planting surrounding the fish pounds.
(iii) Mixed food lots:-  in this system multiple trees are grown in a mixed fashion with the objective to provide wood, fodder, for the soil conversation.

Arrangement of different components

• Temporal system
• Spartial system

Agroforestry

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Photograph taken from Google (credit goes to Google )

Agroforestry  is land use management system in which trees and shrubs are grown with the  crops or pastureland. It combines shrubs and trees in agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy,
ecologically beneficial, and sustainable land-use systems.
Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems involving trees combined with crops and/or animals on the same unit of land. It combines:-                                                   
* Production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base.
* Places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs.
* Particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments.
* It involves the interplay of socio-cultural values more than in most other land-use systems and,
* It is structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.

Agroforestry is any sustainable land-use system that maintains or increases total yields by combining food crops with tree crops and  livestock on the same unit of land, either alternately or at the same time, using management practices that suit the social and cultural characteristics of the local people and the economic and eco­logical conditions of the area.

Social forestry

Social forestry is defined as “Forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aim at providing continuous flow of goods and services for the benefit of people. This definition implies that the production of forest goods for the needs of the local people is  termed as Social forestry. Thus, social forestry aims at growing forests of the choice of the local population.
Shah (1985) stated that Conceptually Social forestry deals with poor people to produce goods such as fuel, fodder etc. to meet the needs of the local community particularly underprivileged section.

Alley cropping

Alley cropping corn fields between rows of walnut trees.
With alley cropping, crop strips alternate with rows of closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients for the crop. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as windbreaks and eliminate soil erosion.

Alley cropping has been shown to be advantageous in Africa, particularly in relation to improving maize yields in the sub-Saharan region. Use here relies upon the nitrogen fixing tree species Sesbania sesban, euphorbia tricalii, Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium and Faidherbia albida. In one example, a ten-year experiment in Malawi showed that, by using the fertilizer tree Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) on land on which no mineral fertilizer was applied, maize yields averaged 3.3 tonnes per hectare as compared to one tonne per hectare in plots without fertilizer trees nor mineral fertilizers.

Boundary systems

A riparian buffer bordering a river in Iowa.
There are a number of applications that fall under the heading of a boundary system. These include the living fences, the riparian buffer, and windbreaks.

A living fence can be a thick hedge or fencing wire strung on living trees. In addition to restricting the movement of people and animals, living fences offer habitat to insect-eating birds and, in the case of a boundary hedge, slow soil erosion.Riparian buffers are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in ditches where water runoff concentrates. The purpose is to keep nutrients and soil from contaminating surface water.Windbreaks reduce the velocity of the winds over and around crops. This increases yields through reduced drying of the crop and/or by preventing the crop from toppling in strong wind gusts.

Taungya

Taungya is a system originating in Burma. In the initial stages of an orchard or tree plantation, the trees are small and widely spaced. The free space between the newly planted trees can accommodate a seasonal crop. Instead of costly weeding, the underutilized area provides an additional output and income. More complex taungyas use the between-tree space for a series of crops. The crops become more shade resistant as the tree canopies grow and the amount of sunlight reaching the ground declines. If a plantation is thinned in the latter stages, this opens further the between-tree cropping opportunities
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.

Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.

Why we need Agroforestry !!

The increasing population will need a lot of household wood products, paper
products, packing material and fire wood. To meet the growing demand we can't rely
on the forests alone, so private agroforestry is inevitable. India's per capita
consumption of paper and paperboard is less than 10kg and whereas China is 72kg.
The productivity of timber in India is only 0.7 cubic meters /ha/year whereas the
world average is 2.1 cubic meters /ha/year. India's forests are covered in 69 million
hectares i.e. 19.5% of the country's area, the availability of forest land per person in
India is one of the lowest in the world at 0.08 ha, against an average of 0.5 ha for
developing countries and 0.64 ha for the world. The demand for timber was 85
million cubic meters in 2008 and now it is expected to cross 153 million cubic meters
by 2020, the supply of wood from forests are projected to 60 million cubic meters
by 2020. This means India needs to depend on imports or else agroforestry in private
and community lands for its growing wood requirements.
Increased cost of cultivation, non availability of farm labor, higher farm wages and
various reasons farmers are switching to less investment and less labor intensive
farming like short term commercial crops and forestry plantations. Agroforestry
system is mostly practiced by the large farmers who have alternative source of
income rather than agriculture, It won't viable to small farmers since they need
annual returns on agriculture for their livelihood. But some of the areas the small
farmers also cultivating the agro forestry by inter cropping the food crops    
between the rows up to one or two years or till the trees get bigger, which is a good
sign for food security and wood security.
Leucaena and Eucalyptus trees are widely cultivated in Andhra Pradesh which give
the guaranteed farm income and the yield of each acre is used to be between 25- 30
tonnes for every four years as the trees are harvested only afer 4 years.The wood
pulp is being used in paper industry and as well as plywood, particle boards and
wood veneer. The waste wood has been used in bio mass power generation plants as
a substitute to coal and other fossil fuels to reduce the green house gas emission. In
Prakasam district alone has more than one lakh acres have been cultivated and
producing 10 lakh tonnes of wood valued around Rs 390 crores annually. The market
price has increased recently up to Rs.3900 per tonn due to the shortage of wood
and fair competition among the firms in industry which is a lucrative income for
farmers. Most of the progressive farmers would like to adopt agroforestry model for
sustainable agriculture to improve the farm productivity and profitability.
Indian has achieved self sufficiency in food production, now we should focus on
ecology, preserving our fossil fuels and also cater the growing wood demand caused
by population growth and economic development. The agroforestry system is
capable to sequestrate the massive amounts of carbon that helps to mitigate the
danger of green house gas concentrates. We can implement this system in large
barren lands, farm boundaries to improve soil fertility and water conservation. There
is a remarkable scope in agroforestry to focus on the ecological issues, biomass
production, catle fodder and various outputs to industries as well as employment
generation.
Tree crop interaction
Under the agroforestry system the interaction between
tree and crop are studied in positive, negative and neutral
way. This interaction are depends upon the type of model
including varying species, their nature and composition.
Further, interaction is defined as the effect of one
component of a system on the performance of another
component and/or the overall system (Nair, 1993). Agroforestry and soil health
The property of soil under agroforestry practices is
depend on tree species and their intercropping pattern,
management practices, arrangement direction and the
quantity and quality of litter and their decay rate. Trees are
simultaneously planted in rows sparsely in crop field
and/or along the alies (bunds). These trees provide food,
timber, fuel, fodder, construction materials, raw materials
for forest-based small-scale enterprises and other cottage
industries and in some cases, enrich soil with essential
nutrients (Ghosh et al., 2011).

Agroforestry and microclimate amelioration
Trees on farm bring about favourable changes in the microclimatic
conditions by influencing radiation flux, air temperature, wind speed,
saturation deficit of understory crops all of which will have a
significant impact on modifying the rate and duration of
photosynthesis and subsequent plant growth, transpiration, and soil
water use (Monteith et al., 1991).
Scope and Potential
The scope and potential of agroforestry is envitable. Tree species are
adopted in a large hectare of boundaries, bunds, wastelands area and
permits in the field where most annual crops are growing well.
Agroforestry for CO2 mitigation
Climate change is a burning issue of the world. Rise in CO2 level
accelerate the global warming which necessitated the sink and
sequestration of carbon.
Socioeconomic development
Agro-forestry as a land use system that integrates trees, crops and
animals in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable,
practically feasible and socially acceptable to the farmers (Nair,
1979).

The Forest Economics

   The forest economics

Definition:-

Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. By Alfred Marshall

Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man by  Lionel Robbins

Forest Economics

 FOREST economics is the application of economic principles to a wide range of subjects extending from management of the various forest resources through the processing, marketing and consumption of forest products. Forest economics has much in common with Agricultural economics, but although the latter discipline has an established academic history in Canada, no departments of forest economics exist in this country. Forestry students may, however, emphasize economics subjects, supplementing a single forest economics course with courses of sociology, agricultural economics, outdoor recreation economics and forest policy.

Forest economics courses per se concentrate on the evaluation of the forest resource, on Business management, 
principles as applied to forest regeneration and stewardship, and forest products industries, and on the relation of the forest resource and its exploitation to national economic and social policies. Thus courses address factors affecting the financial viability of a given operation, the industry in general, and the objectives of society as a whole.

Fiscal factors that affect the success of a particular operation include the revenues and costs involved in licensing of public timberland; Taxation; industrial legislation and regulation; costs of inputs and prices of commodities; geographic distribution of customers (as it affects transportation costs); marketing constraints; LABOUR MARKETS; and various federal and provincial policies. The forest economist must also be familiar with technical 

aspects of forest management and industrial production, and should have at least some knowledge of forest ecology, the processing of timber products, technological innovation and wildlife management

Role of Forests in Economic Development of a Country!

Forests play an important role in the economic development of a country. They provide several goods which serve as raw materials for many industries. Wood grown in forests serves as a source of energy for rural households.

Most of the world’s paper is made from wood and one rather reliable index to the degree of economic development of a country is its per capita consumption of paper. As an economy develops economically, paper is used as packaging material, in communications and in scores of other uses. No really satisfactory substitute for paper exists for many of its uses.

While it has long been recognized that forests play many roles in the economic development of a country in addition to providing wood fiber for many uses, the non-wood outputs of forests are coming increasingly to be recognized and valued everywhere in the world. Forests have watershed values especially in areas with fragile and easily eroded soils; tree cover may be highly valuable simply as protection to the watershed.

Forests are valued as a place for outdoor recreation. The kinds of forests most valuable for outdoor recreation are not always the same as the kinds most valuable for wood production and vice versa. The dense forest with trees closely spaced to take full advantage of the sunlight, moisture and fertility to grow wood, is often less attractive to the recreationist than a more open forest.

Forests are the home for many species of wildlife including mammals, reptiles and birds. Some of these forms of wildlife are clearly valuable to man. Ecologists have been much disturbed at the reduction in wildlife numbers, sometimes to the point of extinction, as tropical forests are cleared.

Forests stabilize our ecological stability.

Some important services provided by forests are as follows:

(a) Water:

Forests absorb rainwater and release it gradually into streams. It prevents floods.

(b) Watershed:

Forests keep soil from eroding into rivers.

(c) Climate:

 (d) Recreation:

Forests serve people directly for recreation. National parks and biosphere reserves sanctuaries are a great attraction for tourists. Biosphere reserves are multipurpose protected areas created to deal with conservation of bio-diversity and its sustainable use. In biosphere reserves local area resources are developed. Agricultural activities are allowed to the local communities and employment is provided to the people. Tourism in parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves brings revenue to the authorities that manage them.

     Demand

 Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain price; the relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. The quantity supplied refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply when receiving a certain price. The correlation between price and how much of a good or service is supplied to the market is known as the supply relationship. Price, therefore, is a reflection of supply and demand.

Types of the demand

Price demand:- It refers to the various quantities of the commodity or services that a consumer will purchase at a given time in a market at various hypothetical prices, things such as consumer income, his taste, & prices of interrelated goods (bread & butter) remain unchanged

Income demand: - The income demand refers to the various quantities of goods and services which would be purchased by the consumers at various levels if income. Hence would assure that the prices of the interrelated goods and taste and desire of the costumer don’t change. Just as the price demand express relationship between prices and quantities income demand shoes the relationship between income and quantity demanded

Cross demand:- The cross demand means the quantity of a good or services which will be purchased with refers to the change in prices not of the goods but of other interrelated goods, these interrelated goods are either substitute goods or complementary goods

The relationship between demand and supply underlie the forces behind the allocation of resources. In market economy theories, demand and supply theory will allocate resources in the most efficient way possible. 

A. The Law of Demand

Fig from Google

The law of demand states that, if all other factors remain equal, the higher the price of a good, the less people will demand that good. In other words, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded. The amount of a good that buyers purchase at a higher price is less because as the price of a good goes up, so does the opportunity cost of buying that good. As a result, people will naturally avoid buying a product that will force them to forgo the consumption of something else they value more. The chart below shows that the curve is a downward slope.

A, B and C are points on the demand curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation between quantity demanded (Q) and price (P). So, at point A, the quantity demanded will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on. The demand relationship curve illustrates the negative relationship between price and quantity demanded. The higher the price of a good the lower the quantity demanded (A), and the lower the price, the more the good will be in demand (C).

B. The Law of Supply 

Like the law of demand, the law of supply demonstrates the quantities that will be sold at a certain price. But unlike the law of demand, the supply relationship shows an upward slope. This means that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.

(Credits goes to Google)

A, B and C are points on the supply curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation between quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). At point B, the quantity supplied will be Q2 and the price will be P2, and so on. (To learn how economic factors are used in currency trading, read Forex Walkthrough: Economics.)

Let's say there's a sudden increase in the demand and price for umbrellas in an unexpected rainy season; suppliers may simply accommodate demand by using their production equipment more intensively. 

 Goods

• Inferior good: An inferior good means an increase in income causes a fall in demand. It has a negative YED. An example, of an inferior good is Tesco value bread. When your income rises you buy less Tesco value bread and more high quality, organic bread.

• Normal good. This means an increase in income causes an increase in demand. It has a positive YED. Note a normal good can be income elastic or income inelastic.

• Luxury good. A luxury good means an increase in income causes a bigger % increase in demand. It means that the YED is greater than one. For example, high definition TV’s would be luxury. When income rises, people spend a higher % of their income on the luxury good. (Note: a luxury good is also a normal good, but a normal good isn’t necessarily a luxury good)

Other types of goods

• Complementary goods. Goods which are used together, e.g. TV and DVD player. see: Complementary goods

• Substitute goods. Goods which are alternatives, e.g. Pepsi and Coca-cola. See Substitute goods.

• Giffen good. A rare type of good, where an increase in price causes an increase in demand. The reason is that the income effect of a rise in the price causes you to buy more of this cheap good because you can’t afford more expensive goods. For example, if the price of wheat rises, a poor peasant may not be able to afford meat any more, so has to buy more wheat. See: Giffen goods

WANTS

Economics has defined want very scientific way . Wants include all human's desire which he desires to get because he is social animal and when he see other people with these material . He thinks that he wants same thing . In other world we can want to money or any other thing which attracts our mind and brain .

Characteristics of Human Wants:

A careful study of the nature of human wants snows mat they have some well- marked characteristics.

The important ones among these characteristics are explained below:

Human Wants are Unlimited:

There is no end the human wants. When one want is satisfied, another crops up to take its place. The never-ending cycle of wants goes on and on. Man’s mind is so made that he is never completely satisfied. He always hankers after more and more goods and services. There is no limit to his wants so long as he breathes. Human wants keep on multiplying.

Any Particular want is Satiable:

Although wants in the aggregate au unlimited, yet it is possible to satisfy a particular want, provided one has the means. If, for instance, a man wants a car he can have it and be satisfied. If he is hungry, he takes food and the want is satisfied. Thus a particular want can be satisfied, if one has money enough for the purpose.

Wants are Complementary:

Very seldom does one commodity by itself Satisfy a human want. Usually it calls for something else in audition. It we want to write a letter, we must buy a pen as well as ink and paper. The pen alone is not enough It is a common experience that we want things in groups. A single article out of a group cannot satisfy our wants by itself. It needs other things to complete its use. Thus, a motor-car needs petrol and mobiles oil before it starts working; shoes need laces, and so on. Thus wants are complementary.

Wants are Competitive:

Not only are our wants complementary, they are also competitive. One commodity competes with another for our choice. We all have a limited amount of money at our disposal, whereas we want so many things at the same time. We cannot buy them all. We must, therefore, choose between them by accepting some and rejecting others. Thus, there is competition between the various things that we could buy.

Some Wants are Both Complementary and Competitive:

Machinery competes with labour. A manufacturer can, to some extent, substitute one for the other. But they also go together. Both of them are used in factories. Thus, human wants not only compete, they also complement each other.

Wants are Alternative:

There are several ways of satisfying a particular want. If we feel thirsty, we can have soda, ‘sharbat’ or ‘lassi’ in summer, and tea, coffee or hot milk in winter. There are different alternatives open to us. The final choice depends on their relative prices and the money at our disposal.

Wants are three type :- 

Necessity :-

All wants which are very necessary to live in this earth , that wants are called Necessities . In necessities we can include air , water , food , cloths and house . We need water and food for drinking and eating , we need cloths to wear , we need house to live . If we do not get or receive all these things , we can not live in this earth . Human beings necessities are more than other creatures of God , they live in the nature of God without any house or any clothes . But human being can not live without cloths or without house . If a person does not do any work but , that person also needs all above basic necessities for living his life .

Comforts

Comforts are also the want of human being . But without this we can live the life . But if we get comforts , we can live better life . Cooler , fans , Scooter and computer are all our main comforts . Because with these comforts , person becomes more efficient .

 Luxuries

In economics , luxuries are those wants which crops up when a man or woman become richest in this world . After this he or she dreams of AC rooms , eating only in five or seven star hotels . He or she baths only high paid bathing pools . He or she wants to travel only in top costly ac cars . He or she wants to live only in high cost building . These all desires and wants are called luxuries . It decreases human efficiency .

Banking

A bank is a financial institution licensed to receive deposits and make loans. Banks may also provide financial services, such as wealth management, currency exchange and safe deposit boxes. There are two types of banks: commercial/retail banks and investment banks. In most countries, banks are regulated by the national government or central bank.

Commercial banks are typically concerned with managing withdrawals and receiving deposits as well as supplying short-term loans to individuals and small businesses. Consumers primarily use these banks for basic checking and savings accounts, certificates of deposit

The functions of commercial banks are broadly classified into primary functions and secondary functions, which are shown in Figure-1:

Add caption

The functions of commercial banks are discussed as follows:

(a) Primary Functions:

Refer to the basic functions of commercial banks that include the following:

(i) Accepting Deposits:

Implies that commercial banks are mainly dependent on public deposits.

There are two types of deposits, which are discussed as follows:

(1) Demand Deposits:

Refer to kind of deposits that can be easily withdrawn by individuals without any prior notice to the bank. In other words, the owners of these deposits are allowed to withdraw money anytime by simply writing a check. These deposits are the part of money supply as they are used as a means for the payment of goods and services as well as debts. Receiving these deposits is the main function of commercial banks.

(2) Time Deposits:

Refer to deposits that are for certain period of time. Banks pay higher interest on rime deposits. These deposits can be withdrawn only after a specific time period is completed by providing a written notice to the bank.

(3) Advancing Loans:

Refers to one of the important functions of commercial banks. The public deposits are used by commercial banks for the purpose of granting loans to individuals and businesses. Commercial banks grant loans in the form of overdraft, cash credit, and discounting bills of exchange.

(b) Secondary Functions:

Refer to crucial functions of commercial banks. The secondary functions can be classified under three heads, namely, agency functions, general utility functions, and other functions.

These functions are explained as follows:

(1) Agency Functions:

Implies that commercial banks act as agents of customers by performing various functions, which are as follows:

(i) Collecting Checks:

Refer to one of the important functions of commercial banks. The banks collect checks and bills of exchange on the behalf of their customers through clearing house facilities provided by the central bank.

(ii) Collecting Income:

Constitute another major function of commercial banks. Commercial banks collect dividends, pension, salaries, rents, and interests on investments on behalf of their customers. A credit voucher is sent to customers for information when any income is collected by the bank.

(iii) Paying Expenses:

Implies that commercial banks make the payments of various obligations of customers, such as telephone bills, insurance premium, school fees, and rents. Similar to credit voucher, a debit voucher is sent to customers for information when expenses are paid by the bank.

(2) General Utility Functions:

Include the following functions:

(i) Providing Locker Facilities:

Implies that commercial banks provide locker facilities to its customers for safe keeping of jewellery, shares, debentures, and other valuable items. This minimizes the risk of loss due to theft at homes.

(ii) Issuing Traveler’s Checks:

Implies that banks issue traveler’s checks to individuals for traveling outside the country. Traveler’s checks are the safe and easy way to protect money while traveling.

(iii) Dealing in Foreign Exchange:

Implies that commercial banks help in providing foreign exchange to businessmen dealing in exports and imports. However, commercial banks need to take the permission of the central bank for dealing in foreign exchange.

(iv) Transferring Funds:

Refers to transferring of funds from one bank to another. Funds are transferred by means of draft, telephonic transfer, and electronic transfer.

Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP) (also called linear optimization) is a method to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or minimum cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear relationships. Linear programming is a special case of mathematical programming (mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region is a convex polytope, which is a set defined as the intersection of finitely many half spaces, each of which is defined by a linear inequality. Its objective function is a real-valued affine (linear) function defined on this polyhedron.

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The weather forcast:- Agrometeorology

         Meteorology

The word meteorology has been derived from the greek words "meteors" means    " things up above" and "logos" means study or science. Hence the meaning of meteorology is the study of things up above the earth.
Definition:-
Meteorology is the  science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena and especially with weather and weather forecasting.
Agrometeorology is the study of weather and use of weather and climate information to enhance or expand agricultural crops and/or to increase crop production. Agrometeorology mainly involves the interaction of meteorological and hydrological factors, on one hand and agriculture, which encompasses horticulture, animal husbandry, and forestry.
Horticulture is strongly influenced by climatic variations, however small.

Importance of Meteorology

1.Human Life:
Human being tries to acclimatize himself with the prevailing weather conditions, for this they manage for type of clothing, housing food habit etc.

2. Industry:
Many industries for their raw material depend on agricultural produce and accordingly location of industry is decided, so it is necessary to consider the weather and climate e.g. sugar mill, distillery, jute mill etc.

3. Commerce:
Trading of any item is made according to need of the people in relation to weather prevailing e.g. Gum shoes, umbrella and raincoats are generally traded in rainy season only, woolen cloths in winter season and white cotton cloths. Cold drinks etc.  are in more demand in summer season.

4. Human health:
If any sudden change in the climatic conditions is experienced it results into equdemics of material fever. Asthma patent suffers more during cloudy conditions.

5. Animal Production:
Beef, poultry and milk production also depend on weather and meteorology provides the information for successful animal production and animal husbandry.


   Weather and Climate
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth.

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics.

 Agro climatic  zones of india

A) Agro Climatic Zone in Andhra Pradesh
1. North Coastal Zone
2. Godavari Zone
3. Krishna Zone
4. Southern zone
5. Northen Telangana zone
6. Central Telangana zone
7. Southren Telangana zone
8. Scarce Rainfall Zone
9. High Altitude & Tribal Area

B)  agro climatic zone of maharashtra

1. South Konkan  ---vengurla
2. North Konkan--karkam
3. Western ghat zone--gatpuri
4. Sub. Montane zone--Kolhapur
5. Western Maharashtra plain zone--Pune
6. Western Maharashtra scarcity zone--     Solapur
7. Central Maharashtra plateau zone--Aurangabad
8. Central Vidarbha zone--Yavatmal
9. Eastern Vidarbha zone--sindhewadi

C) Agroclimatic zones of Rajasthan

1. Arid western plains--Barmer,Barmer A
2. Flood prone eastern Plains--Alwar
3. Humid south eastern Plains--Baran 4.Humid southern plains--Banswara 5.Hyper arid partially Irrigated zone--Jaisalmer
6. Internal drainage dry--Jhunjhunu
7. Semi arid eastern plains--Ajmer,Jaipur
8. Sub-humid southern Plains-Chittorgarh
9. Transitional plain of Luni basin--Jodhpur
10. Irrigated north western plains--Sriganga nagar

D) Agroclimatic zones of jammu and kashmir

1. Sub tropical zone
2. Intermediate zone
3. Temperate zone
4. Cold arid zone


       Air Temperature
Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly measured weather parameter. More specifically, temperature describes the kinetic energy, or energy of motion, of the gases that make up air. As gas molecules move more quickly, air temperature increases.
Air temperature affects the growth and reproduction of plants and animals, with warmer temperatures promoting biological growth. Air temperature also affects nearly all other weather parameters.  For instance, air temperature affects:

the rate of evaporation relative humidity wind speed and directionprecipitation patterns and types, such as whether it will rain, snow, or sleet.

    Moisture
Moisture refers to the presence of a liquid, especially water, often in trace amounts. Small amounts of water may be found, for example, in the air (humidity), in foods, and in various commercial products. Moisture also refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air.

   Soil Temperature
Soil temperature is simply the measurement of the warmth in the soil. Ideal soil temperatures for planting most plants are 65 to 75 F. (18 to 24 C.). Nighttime and daytime soil temperatures are both important.
   Determining soil temperatures for a compost bin is also done in the morning. The bin should maintain at least 60 F. (16 C.) bacteria and organisms to do their work. Ideal Soil Temperatures for Planting The perfect temperature for planting varies dependent upon the variety of vegetable or fruit. Planting before it is time can reduce fruit set, stunt plant growth and prevent or reduce seed germination. Plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers and snap peas benefit from soils at least 60 F (16 C.). Sweet corn, lima beans and some greens need 65 degrees F. (18 C.) Warmer temperatures into the 70s (20s C.) are required for watermelon, peppers, squash, and at the higher end, okra, cantaloupe and sweet potatoes.

      Evapo-Transpiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum ofevaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to theatmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, andwaterbodies. Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor throughstomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called anevapotranspirator.

(Diagram from Google
Credits goes to Google)

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0), sometimes incorrectly referred to as potential ET, is a representation of the environmental demand for evapotranspiration and represents the evapotranspiration rate of a short green crop (grass), completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile. It is a reflection of the energy available to evaporate water, and of the wind available to transport the water vapour from the ground up into the lower atmosphere. Actual evapotranspiration is said to equal reference evapotranspiration when there is ample water. Some US states utilize a full cover alfalfa reference crop that is 0.5 m in height, rather than the short green grass reference, due to the higher value of ET from the alfalfa reference.

     Weather Forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of what the atmosphere will be like in a particular place by using technology and scientific knowledge to makeweather observations. In other words, it's a way of predicting things like cloud cover, rain, snow, wind speed and temperature before they happen

   Types of Weather Forecasting

Short-range forecasts are predictions made between one and seven days before they happen. Medium-range forecasts are usually given between one week and four weeks in advance. Long-range forecasts are given between one month and a year in advance. The further into the future you are trying to predict, the harder it is to be sure. Longer-range forecasts are only useful if the forecaster says how likely he or she believes it is that the prediction is accurate. This is called a level of confidence. For example, a forecaster may predict rain next Tuesday with a 90% level of confidence. Short-range forecasts are far more accurate than medium- or long-range ones.

The Site Factors of locality

   The climatic Site factors

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(From Google:-Credits goes to Google)

The climatic factors  factors include rainfall and water,light, temperature, relative humidity, air, andwind. They are abiotic components, includingtopography and soil, of the environmental factors that influence plant growth and development.

Rainfall and Water

Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation. It is the falling of water in droplets on the surface of the Earth from clouds. Other forms of precipitation are freezing rain, sleet or ice pellets, snowfall, and hail (Eagleman 1985; Miller 2001). The amount and regularity of rainfall vary with location and climate types and affect the dominance of certain types of vegetation as well as crop growth and yield.

Light

Light is a climatic factor that is essential in the production of chlorophyll and in photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture food in the form of sugar (carbohydrate). Other plant processes that are enhanced or inhibited by this climatic factor include stomatal movement, phototropism, photomorphogenesis, translocation, mineral absorption, and abscission

Light is that visible portion of the solar radiation or electromagnetic spectrum. It is a form of kinetic energy that comes from the sun in tiny particles called quanta or photons, travelling in waves.

Three properties of this climatic factor that affect plant growth and development are light quality, light intensity, and daylength or photoperiod. Light quality refers to the specific wavelengths of light; light intensity is the degree of brightness that a plant receives; and daylength is the duration of the day with respect to the night period.

Temperature

The degree of hotness or coldness of a substance is called temperature. It is commonly expressed in degree Celsius or centigrade (C) and degree Fahrenheit (F) . This climatic factor influences all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis, respiration,transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein synthesis, and translocation. At high temperatures the translocation of photosynthate is faster so that plants tend to mature earlier.

In general, plants survive within a temperature range of 0 to 50C The favorable or optimal day and night temperature range for plant growth and maximum yields varies among crop species.

Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions generally increase with rise in temperature. Up to a certain point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction with every 10 C temperature increase. But at excessively high temperatures, denaturation of enzymes and other proteins occur.

Excessively low temperatures can also cause limiting effects on plant growth and development. For example, water absorption is inhibited when the soil temperature is low because water is more viscuous at low temperatures and less mobile, and the protoplasm is less permeable. At temperatures below the freezing point of water, there is change in the form of water from liquid to solid. The expansion of water as it solidifies in living cells causes the rupture of the cell walls

Air

The air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere. About 75% of this air is found in the troposphere, the innermost layer of the atmosphere which extends about 17 km above sea level at the equator and about 8 km over the poles.

In addition, about 99% of the clean, dry air in the troposphere consists of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder consists of argon (slightly less than 1%), carbon dioxide (0.036%), and traces of other gases.

The oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are of particular importance to the physiology of plants. Oxygen is essential in respiration for the production of energy that is utilized in various growth and development processes. Carbon dioxide is a raw material in photosynthesis.

The air also consists of suspended particles of dust and chemical air pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3), nitrogen oxides, methane (CH4), propane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), solid particles of dust, soot, asbestos and lead, ozone and many more.

However, the composition of this climatic factor is susceptible of variation. Recently, there has been a hightenend alarm about the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Relative Humidity

The amount of water vapor that the air can hold depends on its temperature; warm air has the capacity to hold more water vapor than cold air. There is almost one-half reduction in the amount of water vapor that the air can hold for every 10 C drop in temperature.

Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapor in the air, expressed as the proportion (in percent) of the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at certain temperature. For example, an air having a relative humidity of 60% at 27 C temperature means that every kilogram of the air contains 60% of the maximum amount of water that it can hold at that temperature.

The amount of water vapor in the air ranges from 0.01% by volume at the frigid poles to 5% in the humid tropics. In relation to each other, high RH means that the air is moist while air with minimal content of moisture is described as dry air. Compared to dry air, moist air has a higher relative humidity with relatively large amounts of water vapor per unit volume of air.

The relative humidity affects the opening and closing of the stomata which regulates loss of water from the plant through transpiration as well as photosynthesis. A substantial understanding of this climatic factor is likewise important in plant propagation. Newly collected plant cuttings and bareroot seedlings are protected against dessication by enclosing them in a sealed plastic bag. The propagation chamber and plastic tent are also commonly used in propagating stem and leaf cuttings to ensure a condition with high relative humidity.

Wind as Climatic Factor

Air movement or wind is due to the existence of pressure gradient on a global or local scale caused by differences in heating. On a global scale it consists of the jet stream flow and movement of large air masses. On the local scale only a smaller quantity of air moves. Surface winds are lower and less turbulent at night due to the absence of solar heating (Eagleman 1985).

When air that is close to the ground cools, it contracts and the pressure rises; when it warms, it expands and loses pressure. Where both cold and warm air occur in proximity, as over a lake and its adjacent shore, the cold flows to the direction of the warm air or from high to low pressure area to correct the pressure imbalance. This also happens in tropical Asia but in a larger and more complex way, as the monsoon winds (Ripley and The Editors of Time-Life Books 1974).

This climatic factor serves as a vector of pollen from one flower to another thus aiding in the process of pollination. It is therefore essential in the development of fruit and seed from wind-pollinated flowers as in many grasses

Moderate winds favor gas exchanges, but strong winds can cause excessive water loss through transpiration as well as lodging or toppling of plants. When transpiration rate exceeds that of water absorption, partial or complete closure of the stomata may ensue which will restrict the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaves. As a result, there will be a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis

Microclimate is a local set of atmosphericconditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few square meters or square feet (for example a garden bed or a cave) or as large as many square kilometers or square miles. Because climate is statistical, which implies spatial and temporal variation of the mean values of the describing parameters, within a region there can occur and persist over time sets of statistically distinct conditions, that is, microclimates. Microclimates can be found in most places.

Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water which may cool the local atmosphere, or in heavy urban areas wherebrick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the sun's energy, heat up, and re-radiate that heat to the ambient air: the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate.

Bioclimate is (biology|meteorology) a climate, as it influences, and is influenced by, biological organisms.


         Topographic Factor

            Biotic Factors

Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil

Physical properties

1. Soil Separates and Soil Textures:

Mineral fraction of soil consists of particles of various sizes. According to their size, soil particles are grouped into the following types


The particle sizes of above groups are suggested by International Society of Soil Science. In India, international system of particle differentiation is commonly followed. The particle types are generally called ‘soil separates’ or ‘soil fractions’.  Amount of soil separates is determined by a process known as mechanical analysis. In this process, soil sample is crushed and screened through a 2 mm round hole sieve. The screened soil is then homogeneously dispersed in water and allowed to settle.

2. Structure of Soil:
Sand, silt and clay are found in aggregated form. Arrangement of these soil particles on certain defined patterns is called soil structure. The natural aggregates of soil particles are clod peds whereas an artificially formed soil mass is called clod. Ped differs from fragment because the latter refers to the broken ped. Ped differs from concretion in the sense that the latter is formedinthe soil by precipitation of salts dissolved in percolating water.

Soil structure also reveals the colour, texture and chemical composition of soil aggregates. Soil structure is influenced by air moisture, organic matter, micro-organisms and root growth. When many particles or peds are aggregated into cluster, a compound particle is formed.

3. Density and Soil Weight:

Density of soil is the mass per unit volume. It is expressed in terms of gm per cubic centimeter. Average density of the soil is 2.65 gms per cubic centimeter. Density of soil varies greatly depending upon the degree of weathering.

Chemical properties
1. Inorganic Matters of Soil:

From the accounts given in the description of weathering process it is clear that compounds of aluminium, silicon, calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium and sodium are chief inorganic constituents of soils. Besides these, the soils also contain small quantities of several other inorganic compounds, such as those of boron, magnesium, copper, zinc, molybdenum, cobalt, iodine, fluorine etc. The amounts of these chemicals vary in soils of different places. Chemical composition of soil of one horizon differs greatly from the composition of soil in the other horizon.

2. Organic Matters in Soil:

Organic component of the soil consists of substances of organic origin; living and dead. In sandy soil of arid zone, it is found in very poor quantity (one or less than one per cent) but in peaty soil, it may be as high as 90%. When the plants and animals die, their dead remains are subjected to decomposition.

As a result of decomposition a number of different organic products or compounds are formed from the original residues. In the course of decomposition, the original materials are converted into dark coloured organic complexes, called humus. Sometimes living micro-organisms add sufficient amount of organic matters in soil in the form of metabolic wastes.


4. Coagulation or flocculation of colloidal particles:

Colloidal particles in the suspension can be coagulated either by heating or by adding some substances which contain opposite charged ions. When substances carrying positive ions are added in suspension containing negatively charged colloid particles, ions will move and accumulate on the surface of colloids carrying opposite charge. Finally a stage comes when colloidal particles cannot attract more opposite charged ions This is called isoelectric point As a result of ion accumulation on their surface, the colloids first become large and heavier and finally they tend to settle at the bottom in floccules. This process is known as flocculation.

5. Tyndal phenomenon:

Colloidal particles in suspension can be seen when a strong beam of light is passed through suspension and observer looks it from the place at right angle to the path of light. The colloidal particles become visible as strongly illuminated particles and they appear bigger than normal size. This phenomenon is known as “Tyndal effect”.

6. Brownian movement:

Colloidal particles when suspended in dispersion medium show a characteristic continuous zig-zag motion, called Brownian movement. This type of movement was first observed by English botanist Robert Brown, hence it is called Brownian movement. The movement is exhibited because of characteristic collision of one particle with others. This prevents the particles from settling down.

Definition of forest and forestry

                    UNIT:-1
FOREST AND THE FORESTRY

(Photo from Google)

                                                                                                                                 Next page
Definition:-                                                                      
The word  forest latin (also forès) "forest, vast expanse covered by trees" in definition for the existence of trees. ...
The vast land covered by the hudge canopies of trees is called forest

FORESTRY:- It is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources ,the science or practice of planting, managing, and caring for forests.

Classification of Forests
Forests can be classified on the basis of:
1. Age,
2. Method of regeneration,
3. Composition,
 4. Ownership,
5. Object of Management,
6. Growing Stock.

1. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Age: Forest is classified into:

A) Even Aged Forest:
Even-aged forests, also called regular forests are those consisting of even - aged woods. Even - aged wood means trees of approximately the same age. True even - aged forests can be only man - made forests.  In case of forests, which regenerate naturally, some age difference is often allowed. Differences up to 25% of the rotation are usually allowed in cases where forest is not harvested for 100 years or more.

B)  Un-Even Aged Forests:
A forest is called uneven - aged or irregular when trees vary widely in age.

2. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Regeneration: Forests are identified into

A. High Forest: When regeneration is obtained from seed

B. Coppice Forest: When regeneration is through coppice or some vegetative part of the tree.

* Natural Forest: When the regeneration is obtained naturally, the forests are called natural forests

* Man Made Forest: When it is obtained artificially, the forests are called Man-made forests or Plantations.

3. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Composition: Forests are classified into
A. Pure Forests: Pure forests are composed almost entirely ofo ne species, usually to the extent of not less than 50 pe cent.
B. Mixed Forests: Mixed forests are defined as forest composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the same canopy.

4. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Management: Forests are classified into
A. Protection Forests: Protection forests are those which are managed primarily for ameliorating climate, checking soil erosion and floods, conserving soil and water, regulating stream flow and increasing water yields and exerting other beneficial influences.
B. Production Forests: Production forests are those which are managed primarily for their produce.
C. Social Forests: Social forests where the produce is utilised by neighbouring society.

5. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Ownership: Forests can be classified as
A. Government Forests:
On the basis of Legal status, Government forests are further classified into:
a. Reserved Forests: A Reserved forest is an area with complete protection, constituted according to chapter II of the Indian Forests Act. 1927.
b. Protected Forests: A Protected forest is an area subject to limited degree of protection constituted under the provisions of chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act., 1927.
c. Village Forests: A Village forest is a state forest assigned to a village community under the provisions of chapter III of Indian Forest Act.

B. Private Forests

C. Forests owned by Corporations, Panchayats, Societies and other Agencies.

6. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Growing Stock : A forest can be classified into
A. Normal Forest: A Normal forest is an ideal forest with regard to growing stock, age class distribution and increment and from which the annual or periodic removal of produce equals to the increment and can be continued indefinitely without endangering future yields.
B. Abnormal Forest: Abnormal forest is one which is not normal, i.e. growing stock, age, class, distribution of stems, increment, etc. are either in excess or more usually in dificit than the normal forest.

Classification of forestry

A. Protection Forestry
B. National Forestry
C. Village Forestry
C. Tree Land forestry

A. Protection Forestry
The practices of managing the forests for their protection function are called Protection forestry.  In protection forestry, the object is to protect the site due to instability of terrain, nature of soil, geological formations, etc. Such areas where manipulation of the forest cover is not desirable may be classed as protection forests. The forests located on higher hill slopes, national parks and sanctuaries, preservation plots, biosphere or nature reserves and wilderness areas may be included under protection forests.  The practice of forestry with a view to conserving flora, fauna, soil and water, increasing water yields, reducing floods and droughts, amelioration of climatic conditions, etc. is called Protection Forestry.

B. Production Forestry
The practice of forestry with object of producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel wood and other forest produce is called Production Forestry. The production forestry can be further classified into:
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel wood and other forest products as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. In Production forestry, there is a greater concern for the production and economic returns.

(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests

C. Social Forestry:- Social Forestry  is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the requirement of rural and urban population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic needs of community aiming at bettering the conditions of living through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns

Various forms of Social forestry are:

a) Community Forestry: The practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area for the benefit of local population has been called Community forestry. Community forestry seeks the involvement of community in the creation and management of such forests.
b) Farm Forestry: Farm Forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms of village lands generally integrated with other farm operations.
c)Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm lands, villages wastelands and community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads, canal banks and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there has been emphasis on dynamic land use planning and efforts are made to maximise production on farmlands under agroforestry.
d) Agro-Forestry: Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system which increases the yield of the land, combines the production of crops and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
 e) Recreational Forestry: More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational forestry, which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing and maintaining forests of high scenic value. Recreational forests are being developed near towns and cities. The areas are being planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide forest atmosphere near towns and cities.


Branches of Forestry

1. Silviculture:
If refers to certain aspects of theory and practices of raising forests crops, methods of raising tree crops, their growth and after care up to the time of final harvesting.

2. Mensuration:
It deals with the measurement of forest produce ex. Dimension from volume, age and increment of individual trees and forest crop.

3. Silviculture system:
Process by which the crops constituting a forest are tended, removal and replaced by new crops

4. Management:
Practical application of sequence technique and economics to forest estate for the production of certain desired results

5. Utilization:
Branch of forestry which deals with harvesting, marketing conservation and applying the forest produce to a variety of uses eg. Timber, fuel etc.

Object of Silviculture

1. Control of Crop Composition and Production of Species of More Economic Value
2. Control of Stand Density, for Production of Maximum Volume
3. Afforestation of Blank and Under Stocked Areas
4. Production of Quality Timber
5. Control on Rotation Period:
6. Facilitate management and use of forest.

History of forestry in india

(Photo from Google)

In 1953, the government nationalised the forests which were earlier with the zamindars. India also nationalised most of the forest wood industry and non-wood forest products industry. Over the years, many rules and regulations were introduced by India. In 1980, the Conservation Act was passed, which stipulated that the central permission is required to practice sustainable agro-forestry in a forest area. Violations or lack of permits was made a criminal offense. These nationalisation wave and laws intended to limit deforestation, conserve biodiversity, and save wildlife. However, the intent of these regulations was not matched by reality that followed. Neither investment aimed at sustainable forestry nor knowledge transfer followed once India had nationalised and heavily regulated forestry. Deforestation increased, biodiversity diminished and wildlife dwindled. India's rural population and impoverished families continued to ignore the laws passed in Delhi, and use the forests near them for sustenance.

India launched its National Forest Policy in 1988. This led to a programme named Joint Forest Management, which proposed that specific villages in association with the forest department will manage specific forest blocks. In particular, the protection of the forests would be the responsibility of the people. By 1992, seventeen states of India participated in Joint Forest Management, bringing about 2 million hectares of forests under protection. The effect of this initiative has been claimed to be positive